英语国家概况--谢福之-复习资料.doc

Chapter 1全名: the United Kingdom of Great Britain（大不列颠联合王国） and Northern Ireland（北爱尔兰） 由成千上万的小岛组成（the British Isles）. 两大岛屿：Great Britain（大不列颠） and Ireland（爱尔兰）
The River Thames (second longest and most important), originates（起源于） in southwestern England -----North Sea.
Scotland ( Edinburgh爱丁堡 ) important river:Clyde River kilts（苏克兰小短裙）
Wales( Cardiff加迪夫，著名港口 ). The Severn River is the longest river of Britain------flow through western England.
Northern Ireland (Belfast贝尔法斯特，首府) Lough Neagh----the largest lake in the British Isles.
Climate: temperate, with warm summers, cool winters and plentiful precipitation(降雨量)，冬暖夏凉，降雨充沛
Three major features: winter fog, rainy day, instability 冬天多雾，常年多雨，天气不定
London---Buckingham Palace（白金汉宫）, Guildhall (市政厅), St. Paul’s Cathedral（圣保罗大教堂）, The Tower Bridge of London（伦敦塔桥）
The majority of the population is descendants of the Anglo-Saxons, a Germanic people from Europe.大部分的人口是盎格鲁-撒克逊人的后裔，从欧洲来的日耳曼人 Most people in Wales and Scotland are descendants of the Celtic people, including the Irish people威尔士和苏格兰的大多数人都是凯尔特人的后裔，包括爱尔兰人
English belongs to the Indo-European family of languages. English is in the Germanic group.英语属于日耳曼语语系 Germanic group: East Germanic, North Germanic, West Germanic. English evolved from the West Germanic group.日耳曼语系：东日耳曼语，北日耳曼语，西日耳曼语。英语从西日耳曼语中发展。
1、Old English: was influenced by Old Norse spoken by the Vikings and was related to the German and Dutch languages.受古代维京人所说的古斯坎德纳威亚语影像并和德语法语密切相关.was ended with the Norman Conquest, when the language was influence by the French-speaking Normans.古英语时代结束于说法语的诺曼人的征服
2、Middle English: William the Conqueror invaded and conquered and the Anglo-Saxons (Numerous French words came into the English vocabulary)征服者威廉入侵并征服和盎格鲁-撒克逊人（大量的法语词汇进入英语词汇）
3、Modern English(15 century): William Caxton brought standardization to English, and spelling and grammar became fixed. The first dictionary published in 1604. Samuel Johnson: A Dictionary of the English Language was influential in a standard form of spelling.卡克斯顿威廉带来了标准化的英语，并成为固定的拼写和语法。第一本字典发表于1604。约翰逊塞缪尔：一本英文字典是有影响的一种标准形式的拼写。
Standard English is based on the speech of the upper class of southeastern England. It is also called “the Queen’s English” or “BBC English”. A third of world’s population use English.标准英语是基于英国东南部的讲话的。它也被称为“女王的英语”或“英国广播公司英语”。三分之一的世界人口使用英语。
Chapter 2 有记录的历史起始于55BC,Julius Caesar（凯撒大帝）and his Roman troops invaded the island. 410年, Germanic（日耳曼人）进攻罗马，结束了罗马的统治
1. Celtic→Spain and France 凯尔特人→西班牙和法国Anglo-Saxon→Germanic Tribes盎格鲁-撒克逊→日耳曼部落
3. Norman Conquest（诺曼征服） of England marked the establishment of feudalism（封建制度）
4. Henry II 建立 rule of the House of Anjou(安茹王朝) in England, 亦称为the House of Plantagenet(金雀花王朝). He improved the courts of justice, introduce the jury system and institutionalized common law.他改进了法院的公正，介绍了陪审制度和制度化的普通法。
5. The Magna Ca (大宪章）：英国宪政的基础 the foundation of the British constitutionalism
6. Henry III wages wars. The outraged nobles, led by Simon de Montfort, drafted the Provision of Oxford(牛津条约) to limit the King’s power by calling regular meetings of 15-member Privy Council(枢密院).由Simon de Montfort率领的贵族，起草提供牛津（牛津条约）通过调用15名枢密院会议限制国王的权力（枢密院） Simon de Montfort facilitated the modern idea of a representative parliament.西蒙·德·蒙特福特促进了现代有代表性的议会。
7.The Wars of the Roses: the House of York( white rose) and the House of Lancaster( red rose)→winner. Henry Tudor became King Henry VII and started the rule of the House of Tudor.约克（白玫瑰）和兰开斯特家族（红玫瑰）→赢家。亨利都铎国王亨利七世，开始了都铎王朝的统治
8. In 1584, King Henry VIII issued the Act of Supremacy 《至尊法案》. In 1651, Cromwell destroyed Charles II’s army, which marked the end of the Civil Wars. In 1660 Parliament decided to restore Charles II to the throne which put an end to the Commonwealth.1584，国王亨利八世颁布《至尊法案》至上的行为。在1651，克伦威尔摧毁了查尔斯二世的军队，这标志着内战结束。在1660届议会决定恢复查尔斯二世的王位，这将结束了英联邦。
9. 在1688，光荣革命（Glorious Revolution）发生。在1689年，议会通过了人权法案（ the Bill of Rights）。 10.19世纪中期，工业革命完成。
11. The British Empire began with the colonization of Newfoundland in 1583. By the end of 19th century, the British Empire included about 1/4 of the global population and the world’s landmass.大英帝国开始与纽芬兰殖民1583。在第十九世纪末，英帝国包括了1 / 4的世界人口和世界的陆地。
12. South African is the fourth self-government dominion of the British Empire after Canada, Australia and New Zealand.南非是继加拿大、澳大利亚和新西兰之后的第四个自治领。
Chapter 3 Britain is a parliamentary democracy 议会制民主with a constitutional monarchy君主立宪制.The British Constitution is made up of
① Statutory law 成文法,制定法（the most important）→ passed by parliament②Common law 判例法，普通法→ customs or legal precedents③Conventions 习惯法，衡平法 →not legally exist, but still vital
3. The House of commons（下议院） 三大职能①The most important is drafting new laws. 立法②to scrutinize, criticize and restrain the actions of the government 约束政府③to influence the future government policy影像未来政策 6. The parliament: a two-party system 两党制
7. Three main parties: The Conservative Party保守党, The Labor Party工党, The Liberal Democrats自由民主党. 获得下议院半数以上投票的党派成为执政党
8. The Queen of Britain is considered the head of the Commonwealth. The headquarters are all located in London.英国女王被认为是英联邦的元首（然并卵，只是个代言人而已）。总部都设在伦敦。
Chapter 4 1By the 19th century, the British economy had produced 1/3 of the world’s manufactured goods.十九世纪，英国独揽世界三分之一成品
1. In order to separate politics and economic policy, Tony Blair made the Bank of England independent. His government was successful in limiting government spending, keeping inflation under control and reducing unemployment.为了独立的政治和经济政策，布莱尔让英国央行独立。他的政府是成功的限制政府开支，控制通货膨胀，减少失业率。
2. Important crops are wheat, barley, sugar beet and potatoes. The major fishing areas are the North Sea, the English Channel, the waters off the Irish coast and the sea area between Britain and Iceland.重要的农作物有小麦、大麦、甜菜和土豆。主要的捕鱼区是北海，英吉利海峡，爱尔兰海岸和英国和冰岛之间的海域。
3. Major source of energy: coal mining, oil industry (relatively new), nuclear power能源的主要来源：煤炭开采，石油工业（相对较新），核电
4. Three principal financial centers三大金融中心: London, Tokyo, New York
5. Tourism: Stonehenge, Windsor Castle. Britain is one of the world’s largest centers for international conference.最大国际会议中心
6. Export出口 partners: Germany, the United Stated, the Netherland, France
Import进口 partner: Germany, the United Stated, the Netherland, China
Chapter 5 1Before 1870, education was voluntary and schools were set by the church. 1870年之前教育是自愿的，教堂开设学校0th century later on, government take responsibility for education二十世纪以后，政府承担教育Four stages: ①primary初中: 5---11②secondary高中: 11---16③further education两年以上高中---16 two more years in preparation for higher education④higher education高等教育---18
3. Two parallel school system
v State system国家制度 93% → free to all children between 5---16 years old
v Independent system独立制度→ 7% independent tuition fees and curriculum
4. Further Education①At 16: National examination国考 →GCSE (Certificate of Secondary Education) 中等教育证书to leave or continue ②Sixth form (2 years): 3 or 4 subjects③A-level( General Certificate of Education---Advanced)→for universities admittances(academic)普通教育高级证书④GNVQ( General National Vocational Qualification)→for vocational training全国通用职业资格证书
5. Recruitment based on: Grades of A-levels, school refences, interview招聘基于：普通教育高级证书，学校推荐和面试
8. The Observer→ the world’s oldest Sunday newspaper最老 周日报The Times→ one of Britain’s oldest and influential newspaper 英国最老最有影响力的报纸THREE BIG: The Times, The guardian, The Daily Telegraph 三巨头：时代，卫报，每日电讯报
9. BBC: The British Broadcasting Corporation, excel in documentaries英国广播公司 BSkyB: Britain’s top pay-television provider英国天空广播公司，顶级付费
10. Three Christmas traditions: ①Christmas pantomime ②Queen’s Christmas message ③Boxing Day (falls on the day after Christmas) 圣诞三传统：①圣诞哑剧②女王的圣诞致辞③节礼日（落在圣诞节后一天）
11. Trooping the Color (in June), known as the Queen’s Birthday Parade 女王生日游行、
Chapter 6 1The old English: the epic Beowulf : folk legend of Anglo-Saxons盎格鲁-撒克逊人的民间传说Middle English: Geoffrey Chaucer, the first court poet The Canterbury Tales杰弗里乔叟，第一个宫廷诗人坎特伯雷故事集
2.Renaissance 文艺复兴。莎士比亚代表作：Romeo and Juliet（罗密欧和朱丽叶）Hamlet（哈姆雷特）Othello（奥赛罗）King Lear（李尔王）Macbeth（麦克白）Alexander Pope：An Essay on Criticism（批评论）, the greatest English poet of the classical school
3. JonathanSwift→Gulliver’s Travel格列佛游记Daniel Defoe→RobinsonCrusoe鲁滨逊漂流记
4. William Wordsworth, passive Romanticism → Lake poets；Second generation of Romanticism → George Gordon Byron
5. It was in the Victorian Era that the novel became the leading form of literature
爱尔兰共和国
地理与历史 Geography and History
爱尔兰共和国的面积为70，282平方公里。与北爱尔兰接壤的边界为434公里。The Republic of Ireland covers an area of 70,282 sq.its land border with Northern Ireland is 434 km. 首都是都柏林，The capital is Dublin.爱尔兰一直被比作盆地，内有海滨高地围起的石灰岩高原。海洋性气候影响全国。Ireland has been compared to a basin in which a limestone plateau is rimmed by coastal highlands. Maritime influences penetrate the land. 多样化是低地的主要特征。中部低地是爱尔兰的心脏。Variety is the main feature of the lowlands. The Central Lowland is the heart of Ireland. 沼泽仍是爱尔兰最重要的地形特征。Bogs remain the most significant feature of Irish landscape.
l.气候 Climate and Weather 爱尔兰的气候被描绘成"温和、温润和多变",The weather of Ireland is described as "mild, moist and changeable." 爱尔兰雨量过多。中部低地,是爱尔兰雨量最少的地区Ireland has excessive rainfall. The Central Lowland is the area of the lightest rainfall in Ireland,
Ⅲ.人口与宗教 Population and Religion 爱尔兰的基本民族是凯尔特人，同时还混合有挪威人、法国人、诺曼人和英国人。In Ireland the basic ethnic stock is Celtic, with an admixture of Norse, French, Norman and English.爱尔兰自由邦建立后 (1921年)，移民锐减。After the establishment of the Irish Free State (1921), emigration showed a sharp decline. 爱尔兰有两种官方语言：爱尔兰语(凯尔特语)和英语。There are two official languages in Ireland. They are Irish (or Gaelic) and English,爱尔兰是欧洲最为信奉天主教的国家。美国约有一半的天主教主教是爱尔兰裔。Ireland is one of the most Catholic countries of Europe. About half the Catholic bishops in the United States are of Irish origin.
Ⅳ.历史背景 Historical Background 在史前时代，爱尔兰遭受许多凯尔特部落的入侵，最重要的是盖尔人。约公元前4世纪他们抵达此岛，征服了北方的皮克特人和南方的爱兰人部落(这是爱尔兰名称的来源)，后来他们定居下来建立了繁荣的盖尔文明。爱尔兰历史上最重要的事件或许是公元432年圣帕特里克来到爱尔兰岛，并把此岛变成学问中心和基督教文化中心。 国人和爱尔兰人之间的冲突持续了近800年。亨利八世是使爱尔兰置于英国的完全统治下的首位国王。1610年苏格兰定居者在乌尔斯特建立殖民地。1948年，爱尔兰投票使自己脱离英联邦，1949年4月18日宣布为共和国。
Ⅴ.外交政策 Foreign Policy 独立以来，爱尔兰一直奉行中立与不结盟政策。Since independence Ireland has adhered to a policy of neutrality and nonalignment,1979年6月22日，爱尔兰与中国建立外交关系。目前爱尔兰与46个国家保持外交关系。Ireland established diplomatic relations with China on June 22, 1979. Ireland currently maintains diplomatic relations with 46 countries.
Ⅰ.政治体制 Political Structure根据1937年的宪法，爱尔兰是议会制共和国和中央集权国家。北爱尔兰公民也被视为共和国公民，能够竞选南方的职位。爱尔兰共和国由爱尔兰32个郡中的26个郡组成。Ireland is a parliamentary republic and a unitary state under the 1937 Constitution. Citizens of Northern Ireland are also considered citizens and cart run for office in the South. The Republic of Ireland consists of 26 of the 32 counties of Ireland.
1.行政权Executive power 国家元首是总统，直接投票选举产生，任期七年。他召集或解散议会；签署和颁布法律；任命法官、首相和其他内阁成员；统率武装部队。 总统应在众议院提名下任命首相；在众议院事先批准而首相提名下任命其他政府成员。政府向众议院所负的责任是集体的，它被要求作为一集体权力部门聚会和行动。集体负责制要求政府对公众和众议院以统一战线的面目出现。作为政府首脑，首相只对众议院负责。他仅被要求让总统对"国内和国际事务的方针有总体了解"。
2.立法权 Legislative power 所有立法权都赋予了国家议会。国家议会分为两院：众议院和参议院。 The national parliament (Oireachtas) has two Houses. They are the House of Representatives and the Senate宪法所规定的参议院的权力通常比众议院的权力要少。3.爱尔兰法律和法院3. Irish laws and courts 爱尔兰法律以英国的普通法为基础，随后的立法和1937年的宪法对之加以修改。Irish law is based on English common law as modified by subsequent legislation and the 1937 Constitution.只有议会决议能对法官免职。高级法院裁决宪法条款范畴内的任何法律的合法性。judges can be removed from office only by resolution of the Oireaehtas. The high court also can determine the validity of any law within the provisions of the Constitution.最高法院可以宣布现有立法违宪。The Supreme Court may declare existing legislation to be unconstitutional.
Ⅱ.政党 11. Political Parties 爱尔兰是两极政党制，主要的两大党为共和党和统一党。两党都由新芬党发展而来。Ireland has a bipolar political party system with two major parties, Fianna Fail and Fine Gael. They are both descended from Sinn Fein (We Ourselves).后来的统一党，接受英爱条约和在英联邦内的自治领地位，而少数派共和党，则由埃蒙·德·凡勒拉领导，拒绝接受条约并继续斗争。Cumann na Gael, later Fine Gad, accepted the treaty and dominion status within the British Commonwealth while the minority, Fianna Fail, led by Eamort De Valera, refused it and continued the struggle. Ⅲ.经济III. The Economy 爱尔兰是私有经济占主导地位的自由市场经济。它是欧共体中最不发达国家之一。Ireland is a free-market economy with a dominant private sector. It is one of the least developed countries in the EC.总体上说，爱尔兰农业是混合经济。但农民的一大部分收入来自家畜。As a whole, Irish farming is a mixed economy. But the farmer derives a sizable part of his income from livestock. 爱尔兰农业中最重要的近期发展是其成为欧共体成员。欧共体成员身份使爱尔兰农民能参加共同体的公共农业政策并把他们的产品出口到更广范围的市场。2.制造业2. Manufacturing 自从20世纪60年代以来，制造业一直是爱尔兰经济的支柱。Since the 1960s, manufacturing has become the mainstay of the Irish economy.现在爱尔兰是欧洲最大的铅和锌生产国Ireland is now the largest producer of lead and zinc concentrates in Europe.失业是爱尔兰的一个长期问题。政府和工会都把失业视为国家最严重的经济问题。Unemployment is a chronic problem in Ireland. It is seen by both the government and the trade unions as the country's most serious economic problem.
Ⅳ.教育IV. Education. 6岁到15岁之间的教育是义务的，主要的教学语言是英语。Schooling is compulsory between ages 6 and 15. The chief language of instruction is English中学大体上是私立和宗教学校。爱尔兰最古老的大学是都柏林大学，Secondary schools are by and large private and denominational. Ireland's oldest university is the University of Dublin,
Ⅴ.传媒和文化V. Media and Culture
第一份报纸在1659年2月发行。今天《爱尔兰泰晤士报》是全国最有影响的日报。它的读者通常是职业人士和高级管理人员。《爱尔兰独立报》是最畅销的日报，发行量最大。它倾向于统一党，The first newssheet was published in February 1659. Today the Irish Times is the nation's most influential daily. It is regularly read by the professional and managerial elite. The Irish Independent is a best-selling daily. It has the largest circulation. It is loosely identified with the Fine Gad Party。爱尔兰报纸禁止提及爱尔兰共和军，因为爱尔兰共和军在爱尔兰是非法组织。Irish newspapers are forbidden to refer to the Irish Republican Army because the IRA is an illegal organization in Ireland. 爱尔兰没有国家通讯社。Ireland has no national news agency. 爱尔兰中世纪时期最重要的著作是散文传奇和组诗。当时最著名的作家之一是诗人奥西恩Ossian,现代最著名的爱尔兰作家是詹姆斯·乔伊斯James Joyce
14 15加拿大的地理特点：Canada’s geography features:
1) 座落于美国的北部，仅次于俄罗斯的世界第二大国；lies to the north of the US; the world‟s second largest country after Russia.
2.地形十分复杂：东部山区沿海省份沿劳伦斯湾和大西洋形成不规则的海岸；西部，太平洋沿岸地区被南北走向的山脉分离，其中包括落基山脉；中部是一个大平原；it has an extremely varied topography:the east part is mountainous maritime provinces have an irregular coastline on the Gulf of St. Lawrence and the Atlantic;The west part, the Pacific border is separated from the rest of the country by mountain ranges from north to south including the Rockies; the central part is a vast plain.
3.气候不甚宜人，大部分地区冬季既漫长又寒冷，积雪深厚；所以，大多数人都居住在南部边境地区the climate is unfavorable, much of Canada has long and cold winters with deep snow. So,a major part of the population lives along the southern border.
4.最高峰是落根峰，主要的两大河流是马更些河与圣劳伦斯河。The highest peak is Mount Logan; The two principal river systems are the Mackenzie River and the St. Lawrence River