自考00832英语词汇学考试重点精华整理.doc

自考00832英语词汇学考试重点精华整理

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English Lexicology(英语词汇学)
1.English lexicology aims at investigating and studying the morphological structures of English words and word equivalents, their semantic structures, relations, historical development, formation and usages.英语词汇学旨在调查和研究英语单词和单词的等价物的形态结构,其语义结构、关系、历史发展、形成和用法。
2.English Lexicology is correlated with such linguistic disciplines as morphology(形态学), semantics(语义学), etymology(词源学),stylistics（文体论） and lexicography(词典学)
Chapter 1--Basic concepts of words and vocabulary
1.Word（词的定义）: A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function. (1)a minimal free form of a language (2)a sound unity (3)a unit of meaning (4)a form that can function alone in a sentence
词语是语言最小的自由形式，拥有固定的声音和意义以及句法作用。
2.Sound and meaning（声音与意义）: almost arbitrary, “no logical relationship between the sound which stands for a thing or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself”
3.Sound and form（读音和形式）:不统一的四个原因（1）the English alphabet was adopted from the Romans,which does not have a separate letter to represent each other （2）the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years（3）some of the difference were created by the early scribes（4）the borrowings is an important channel of enriching the English vocabulary
（5）printing、standardization、dictionary
—Old English,The speech of the time was represented very much more faithfully in writing than it is today. 古代英语中的口语比今天更忠实的代表书面语
—The written form of English is an imperfect representation of the spoken form。英语的书写是发音形式不完善的代表
4.What is vocabulary？
（1）Total number of the words in a language一个语言的单词综合
（2）Words used in a particular historical period 特殊历史时期使用的单词
（3）All the words of a dialect，a book ，a discipline...某个方言，书籍，学科中的所有单词
5. Classification of English Words：
By use frequency:basic word stock&nonbasic vocabulary
By notion:content words&functional words
By origin:native words&borrowed words
6. The basic word stock（基本词汇）: is the foundation of the vocabulary accumulated over centuries and forms the common core of the language. Though it constitute a small percentage of the EV, it is the most important part of vocabulary. 基础词是几世纪积累的词汇的基础，构成语言的核心。尽管基础词占英语词汇比例小，它依然是最重要的组成部分。
7. The Fundamental Features of the Basic Word Stock(基本词汇的基本特征):
1)All-National character（全民通用性most important） 2)Stability（相对稳定性 relative）
3)Productivity（多产性 are mostly root words or monosyllabic words） 4)Polysemy（多义性） 5)Collocability（可搭配性）
8. nonbasic vocabulary(1)Terminology(术语) (2)Jargon（行话） (3)slang（俚语） (4)Argot（暗语） （5）Dialectal words(方言) (6) Archaisms（古语） (7) Neologisms（新词语）:Neologisms means newly-created words or expressions, or words that have taken on new meanings.(email)
9.— Terminology consists of technical terms used in particular disciplines and academic areas as in medicine、in mathematics、in music、in education. 包括特定学科的技术术语和学术领域
—Jargon refers to the specialized vocabularies by which members of particular arts, sciences, trades and professions communicate among themselves用于特定的词汇，经过特定艺术，科学，商业和专业领域的成员在彼此之间交流
—Slang belongs to the sub-standard language ,a category that seems to stand between the standard general words including informal ones available to everyone and in-group words like cant, jargon, and argot俚语粗话属于低等语言，处在标准通用语言，（包括每人用的非正式词汇）和团体内部语言包括cant(任何下等团体的行话)，jargons,argot
10. slang is colourful, blunt, expressive and impressive俚语生动，直率，印象深刻而且感人
11. Certain words are labeled 'slang' not because their appearance or pronunciation but because of their usage特定词被标示为“俚语”不是因为她们的写法和发音，而是因为她们的用法
12. Content words/notional words实词
Content words denote clear notions and thus are known as notional words. They include nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs and numerals内容词表示清楚的概念，因为被认为是概念词。她们包括名词，动词。形容词，副词和数词
13. functional words/empty words虚词
Functional words do not have notions of their own. Therefore, they are also called empty words. As their chief function is to express the relation between notions, the relation between words as well as between sentences, they are known as form words. Prepositions, conjunctions, auxiliaries and articles belong to this category. 功能词没有她们自己的概念。因此，她们也称作“空词”。由于她们的主要功能是去表示概念间的关系，词语间和句子间的关系，她们被认为是“结构词”。介词，连词，辅助词和冠词属于这一类
14.区别：
Content words, which constitute the main body of the English vocabulary, are numerous, and the number is ever growing whereas functional words, which make up a very small number of the vocabulary, remain stable. However, functional words do far more work of expression in English on average than content words 内容词，构成了英语词汇的主体，是数量多的。而且那数量还在增长，然而，功能词，只占词汇的很少一部分，保持稳定。然而，功能词比内容词在表示上做了更多的工作
15. Native words：1. Neutral in style风格中性2. Frequent in use使用频繁
（1）Words of Anglo-Saxon origin are small in number, amounting to roughly 50,000 to 60,000盎格鲁撒克逊源头词数量很少，大约在50000到60000之间
（2）they form the mainstream of the basic word stock 她们构成了基本词汇的主流
（3）stand at the core of the language处在语言的核心
16. Words taken over from foreign languages are known as borrowed words or loan words or borrowings in simple terms从外国带来的词被认为是“借词”“借代词”或者“所借的”
17. Denizens are words borrowed early in the past and now well assimilated into the English language. 同化词是过去早期借词，现在很好的同化进了英语
Aliens are borrowed words which have retained their original pronunciation and spelling非同化词是保留了原始发音和拼写的借词
Translation-loans are words and expressions formed from the existing material in the English language but modelled on the patterns taken from another language. 翻译借词是从英语中的现有材料中取材构成，可是模仿其它语言的构成方式。
Semantic-loans. Words of this category are not borrowed with reference to the form. But their meanings are borrowed. 借义词这类词不是参考形式借来，可是她们的意义是借来的。

Chapter 2 the development of the English Vocabulary
1. The English language is not the language of the early inhabitants of the British Isles. 英语不是英国群岛上原住民的语言。
2. The Indo-European Language Family(印欧语系)
The Eight Groups in Indo-European Family of Languages（8大印欧语群）
The Eastern set:
（1）The Balto-slavic Group（波罗的-斯拉夫语族）：Prussian, Lithuanian, Polish, Czech, Bulgarian, Slovenian and Russian普鲁士语，立陶宛语，波兰语，捷克语，保加利亚语，斯洛文尼亚语，俄语
（2）The Indo-Iranian Group（印度-伊朗语族）：Persian, Bengali, Hindi, Romany波斯语，孟加拉语，印地语，吉普赛语
(3)The Armenian Group（亚美尼亚语族）：Armenian.
(4)The Albanian Group（阿尔巴尼亚语族）：Albanian.
The Western set:
(5)The Hellenic Group（古希腊语族）：Greek.
(6)The Italian Group（意大利语族）：Latin ,Romance languages(French,Italian,Spanish, portuguese,Romanian) etc. 五种拉丁语言，就是葡萄牙语，西班牙语，法语，意大利语，罗马尼亚语都属于意大利语系
(7)The Celtic Group（凯尔特语族）：Scottish, Irish, Welsh, Breton, etc苏格兰语，爱尔兰语，威尔士语，布里多尼语等
(8)The Germanic Group（日耳曼语族）：
German, Dutch, Flemish and English,Scandinavian(Norwegian, Icelandic, Danish and Swedish) etc. ，德语，荷兰语，弗兰德语和英语 （挪威语， 冰岛语，丹麦语和瑞典语）这些都被称作斯堪的纳维亚语言
3.A historical overview of the English Vocabulary
（1）The first inhabitants were Celts. Their languages were Celtic. 现在所指最早的居民是凯尔特人，她们的语言依然是印欧语系的另一分支凯尔特语的方言
（2）The second major language known in England was the Latin of the Roman Legions. In 55-54 B.C., the Romans invaded the British Isles英国的第二种主要语言是罗马军团的拉丁语，在公元前55到54年，罗马人入侵英伦群岛
（3）Celtic made only a small contribution to the English vocabulary凯尔特语只对英语词汇有很小的贡献
4. Old English (450-1150) (vocabulary 50,000 to 60,000)= Anglo-Saxon
（1）Latin-speaking Roman missionaries under came to spread Christianity in Britain at the end of the 6th century. 在6世纪末期，拉丁语的罗马传教士来传播基督教
（2）users of Old English did not borrow as heavily from Latin or other languages in this period as they did later古代英语的使用者并不像她们后来做的那样大量从拉丁和其它语言借词
（3）The common practice was to create new words by combining two native words.handbook一般情况用组合两个本地词的形式来创造新词
（4）many Scandinavian words came into the English language许多斯堪的纳维亚词汇进入了英语
（5）it was a high inflected language with complex endings它是高度转折的语言正象现代的德语
5.Middle English (1150-1500):retaines much fewer inflections
（1）The Norman conquest started a continual flow of French words into English诺曼征服开始了法国词汇不断进入英语的洪流
（2）The situation of three languages(Latin,French,English)existing simultaneously continued for over a century三种语言并存的情况存在了一百多年
（3）Britain had trade relations with the low countries，especially Holland英国和低等国家有贸易关系，特别是荷兰
（4）Middle English retained much fewer inflections中世纪英语保留更少的转折
If we say that Old English was a language of full endings，Middle English was one of leveled endings. 如果我们说老英语是一种拥有完整结尾的语言,中世纪英语是一个水平结尾。
6.Modern English (1500-up to now): （1）Early（1500-1700）（2）late （1700-up to the present）
（1）In the early period of Modern English，known as the Renaissance，many new words taken by scholars from Latin and Greek entered into English许多是学者从拉丁文和希腊文中提取
（2）Latinate flavour of Modern English现代英语的拉丁风格。
（3）In the mid-seventeenth century，English absorbed words from all major languages of the world在十七世纪中期，英语从所有世界的主要语言中吸收词汇。
（4）Since the beginning of 20th century，more words are created by means of word-formation从本世纪初开始，更多的词经过构词法被创造出来
English has evolved from a synthetic language(Old English) to the present analytic language.
英语已经由合成语言（古代英语）进化为现代分析语言
7. Growth of Present-day English Vocabulary three main sources：
（1）the rapid development of modern science and technology （45 ％ ）现代科学和技术的迅猛发展
（2）social, economic and political changes（11 ％ ）社会，经济和政治的变化
（3）the influence of other cultures and languages（ 24 ％ ）其它文化和语言的影响
8.Modes of Vocabulary Development
（1）Creations: Creation refers to the formation of new words by using the existing materials, namely roots, affixes and other elements. 创造是指新词的构成经过使用现有的材料，也就是说，词根，词缀和其它元素。
（2）Semantic change means an old form which takes on a new meaning to meet the new need. 意义改变意味着一个老的形式获取新含义以便去应对新的需要。
（3）Borrowing has played a vital role in the development of vocabulary, particularly in earlier times. 借词曾经在词汇的发展中扮演了至关重要的角色，特别是在早期。
（4）Reviving archaic or obsolete words also contributes to the growth of English vocabulary though quite insignificant. 恢复的古词或者废弃的词也对英语词汇的成长做出了贡献。尽管收效甚微。

Chapter 3 Word Formation I
概念：词素、语素、语素变体
1.The minimal meaningful units are known as morphemes.
the morpheme is ' the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words'.
最小的意义单位叫做“词素”。词素是“词语组成中最小的功能单位”。
2.Morphemes are abstract units, which are realized in speech by discrete units known as morphs.
词素是抽象的单位，在话语中被认知经过分开的单位，这单位叫做“语素”。
'They are actual spoken , minimal carriers of meaning'.
它们实际上是能发音的最小的意义载体。
The morpheme is to the morph what a phoneme is to a phone.
语素是一个音素发音的词素。
3. Morphemes coincide with words as they can stand by themselves and function freely in a sentence .they are called monomorphemic words.
语素与词相同，由于它们能代表含义而且能够在句子中自由起作用。这种词叫做单一语素词
4. Morphemes which are realized by more than one morph according to their position in a word. Such alternative morphs are known as allomorphs.
一些词素被按照语素在其中排列而认识，那些替换的语素被称为”语素变体”。
5.the morpheme of plurality |-s：tpk后面（-s）、dbgl后面（-z）、iz是在sz J, 3, tj, C13之后
the past tense过去形式 simple present 一般现在时 possessive 所有格 comparative or superlative degrees 比较级和最高级
6.（1）Free Morphemes（自由词素）: have complete meaning in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences. A free morpheme is one that can stand by itself. (which are independent of other morphemes are considered to be free). 不依靠其它语素的语素是自由语素。这些语素自己有完整的意义能够在句子中当作自由的语法单位来使用。
（2）Bound Morphemes(粘着语素): A bound morpheme is one that cannot stand by itself. They are bound to other morphemes to form words. Bound morphemes are chiefly found in derived words. +例子 不能作为独立词出现的语素是粘连语素。这样称呼因为它们粘连其它语素去构成单词。粘连语素主要出现在派生词中。
7. -ist“…的实践者”； -al表示“…的，关于…的”， -ize表示使成为；-ation表示： “动作”,“过程”， -ic与…有关的
8. Bound Morpheme includes two types: (1) bound root(粘附词根) +例子 (2)Affix(词缀)
(1) a bound root is that part of the word that carries the fundamental meaning just like a free root. Unlike a free root, it is a bound form and has to combine with other morphemes to make words. 一个粘连词根是词中承担基础意义的部分，如同自由根词。和自由根词不同的是，她是一个粘连形式不得不与其它词素组合来构成单词。
In English, bound roots are either Latin or Greek. Although they are limited in number, their productive power is amazing.
(2)Affixes are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or function.
词缀是附属在单词上或者单词元素上以修改词语意义和功能的结构。
9. Affixes can be put into two groups:
1)Inflectional affixes (屈折词缀):affixes attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional,thus known as inflectional morphemes. 是附加在词尾用来表示屈折关系，因此被称为“屈折词素”。
2)Derivational affixes(派生词缀): derivational affixes are affixes added to other morphemes to create new words. 派生词缀是加在其它语素上建立新词的词缀。派生词缀能够分为前缀和后缀。
Prefixes come before the word and the suffixes after the word
10. A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analysed without total loss of identity. 词根是一个词的基础形式不能在没有丧失定义的前提下继续分解.
In terms of derivational and inflectional morphology, a ' root is that part of a wordform that remains when all inflectional and derivational affixes have been removed'. 根据派生和屈折语形学，“一个词根是词语中去除所有屈折词缀和派生词缀都去除剩下的部分。
11. A stem can be defined as a form to which affixes of any kind can be added. 词干能够被定义为任何词缀都能够添加的形式。

Chapter 4 Word-Formation II(构词法)
1.The expansion of vocabulary in modern English depends chiefly on word-formation现代英语中词汇的扩张只要依靠构词法
2. 构词法分类：
affixation (30%-40%) 词缀法（ 30 ％ -40 ％ ）
compounding (28%-30%) 复合法（ 28 ％ -30 ％ ）
conversion (26%) 转化法（ 26 ％ ）
shortening (8%-10%) 缩略法 （ 8 ％ -10 ％ ）
blending and other means (1%-5%) 拼缀法和其它方法（ 1 ％-5% ）
3. Affixation is generally defined as the formation of words by adding word-forming or derivational affixes to stems. This process is also known as derivation, for new words created in this way are derived from old forms. The words formed in this way are called derivatives. 词缀法一般被认为是经过添加词形或者派生词缀到词干以构成新词的方法。这个过程也被称作“派生”，因为经过这种方式创造的新词是从旧词派生而来。经过这种方式造出的词叫做“派生词”。
4. affixation falls into two subclasses: prefixation and suffixation.
（1）Prefixation is the formation of new words by adding prefixes to stems. Prefixes do not generally change the word-class of the stem but only modify its meaning. 前缀法经过给词干加前缀来构成新词。前缀一般不改变词干的词类可是只改变它的意思。
The majority of prefixes are characterized by their non-class-changing nature. Their chief function is to change meanings of the stems. 前缀的大多数都以不改变词类的特点为特征。它们的主要功能是改变词干的意义。
（2）①Suffixation is the formation of new words by adding suffixes to stems. Unlike prefixes which primarily change the meaning of the stem, suffixes have only a small semantic role, their primary function being to change the grammatical function of stems. 后缀法是经过添加后缀到词干来构成新词的方法。不象前缀主要改变词干的意思，后缀只有一个很小的意义作用，它们的主要作用是改变词干的语法功能。
②we shall group suffixes on a grammatical basis into noun suffixes, verb suffixes, adjective suffixes我们能够根据语法基础将后缀分为名词后缀，动词后缀，形容词后缀，等等
③后缀的类别Deverbal动词派生Denominal名词派生 需要记
5. Compounding, also called composition, is the formation of new words by joining two or more stems. Words formed in this way are called compounds. 复合词也叫组合词，是经过连接两个以上词干构成新词的方式。经过这样的方式构成的词叫复合词。
三个特征：（1）Phonetic features（exceptions：sociolinguistics，psycho-analysis）
（2）Semantic features：a lot of compounds are transparent许多复合词是意义明确的