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Chapter 2 Morphological Structure of English WordsContent1.Morpheme2.Allomorph3.ClassificationofMorphemes4.Root,stemandbase5.SummaryEnglish Lexicology(I)31.MorphemesThedefinitionofamorphemeThemorpheme(词 素)isthesmallestmeaningful linguistic unit of language,notdivisibleoranalyzableintosmallerforms.The term morpheme is derived from Greekmorphe(form)+-eme,which denotes thesmallest unit or the minimum distinctivefeatureofsomeclassofthings.English Lexicology(I)41.MorphemesAwordisthesmallestunitofalanguagethatstandsalonetocommunicatemeaning.Structurally,however,a word is not thesmallest unit because many words can beseparatedintosmallermeaningfulunits.Wordsarecomposedofmorphemes.Whatisusuallyconsidered a single word in English may becomposedofoneormoremorphemes.English Lexicology(I)51.Morphemesonemorpheme-nationtwomorphemes-nation-alThreemorphemes-nation-al-izeFourmorphemes-de-nation-al-izeMorethanfourmorphemes-de-nation-al-iz-ationAword,therefore,maybeanalyzableintooneormoremorphemes.Amorphemeisalsoanarbitraryunionofasoundandameaningwhichcantbefurtheranalyzed.English Lexicology(I)62.AllomorphsAnallomorph(词素变体)isanyofthevariantformsofamorphemeasconditionedbypositionoradjoiningsounds.Amorphememaytakevariousshapesorforms.Forexample,theinflectionalmorpheme(屈折词素）(e)sofbooks,pigs,horseshasthesamemeaning“morethanone,”yetithasthreedifferentphonologicalforms:/-s,-z,iz/.Thethreeformsarevariantsofthesamemorphemes.Theyarecalledallomorphs.English Lexicology(I)72.Allomorphs-ion/-tion/-sion/-ationarethepositionalvariantsofthesamesuffix.Verbsendingwiththesound/t/usuallytakeion(asininvent,invention);verbsendingwithconsonantsotherthan/t/taketion(asindescribe,description);verbs ending in ify and ize take ation(as injustify,justification;modernize,modernization);verbsendingind,-de,ormit,takesion(asinexpansion,decision,omission);thereareexceptions:attend,attention;convert,conversion.English Lexicology(I)8Allomorphsalsooccuramongprefixes.Theirformthendependsonthefirstletterofthewordtowhichtheywillbeadded.2.AllomorphsnA prefix like im-occurs before p,b,or m(imperfect,imbalance,etc);nir-before r(irregular,irresponsible);nil-before l(illogical,illegal);nin-before all other consonants and vowels(inflexible,incomplete).im-,ir-and il-are thus allomorphs of the morpheme in-.English Lexicology(I)93.Classification of MorphemesFreevs.boundmorphemesintermsoftheircapacityofoccurringaloneDerivationalvs.inflectionalmorphemesapplyingtoaffixesonlyContent/lexicalvs.grammaticalmorphemeonasemanticandsyntacticbasisEnglish Lexicology(I)103.1 Free and Bound MorphemesFreemorphemes(自由词素)Morphemeswhichareindependentofothermorphemesareconsideredtobefree.Freemorphemeshavecompletemeaningsinthemselvesandcanbeusedasfreegrammaticalunitsinsentences.自由语素是能独立运用的语素，它有完整的意义，在句中充当一个自由的语法单位。E.g.,man,wind,open,tourEnglish Lexicology(I)113.1 Free and Bound MorphemesBoundMorphemes(粘着词素)Morphemeswhichcannotoccurasseparatewordsarebound.Theyaresonamedbecausetheyareboundtoothermorphemestoformwords.Unlikefreemorphemes,theydonothaveindependentsemanticmeaning;instead,theyhaveattachedmeaning(un-kind,hope-ful)orgrammaticalmeaning(cat-s,slow-ly,walk-ing,call-ed).粘着语素不能独立成词，只能依附于其他语素上以构成词或担当一定的语法功能。English Lexicology(I)12 Afreemorphemeisaword,intraditionalsense.Man,faith,read,write,redarefreemorphemes.Aboundmorphemecannotstandbyitselfasacompleteutterance;itmustappearwithatleastoneothermorpheme,freeorbound,forinstanceun-inunkind,-lyinhappilyandre-inreceive,orthe“past-tense”morphemeinwordslikework+edandtype+d,orthe“plural”morphemeinwordslikedog+sandbox+es.Inflectionalelementsandaffixesareboundmorphemes.3.1 Free and Bound MorphemesEnglish Lexicology(I)133.1 Free and Bound MorphemesTypesofboundmorphemesBoundroots(粘着词根)&affixesAboundrootisthatpartofthewordthatcarriesthefundamentalmeaningjustlikeafreeroot.Unlikeafreeroot,itisaboundformandhastocombinewithothermorphemestomakewords.dict-conveysthemeaningofsayorspeak-contradict,predict,contradiction,prediction,dictate,diction,dictionary.dur-:continuous,during,duration,durable,endureEnglish Lexicology(I)143.1 Free and Bound MorphemesTypesofboundmorphemesAffixes(词缀):Affixesareformsthatareattachedtowordsorwordelementstomodifymeaningorfunction.Accordingtothefunctionsofaffixes,wecanputthemintotwogroups:inflectionalandderivationalaffixes.English Lexicology(I)15Inflectional affixes(屈折词缀屈折词缀)IAservestoexpresssuchmeaningsasplurality,tense,andthecomparativeorsuperlativedegree.Itdoesnotformanewwordwithnewlexicalmeaningwhenitisaddedtoanotherword.Nordoesitchangetheword-classofthewordtowhichitisaffixed.IAhaveonlytheirparticulargrammaticalmeaning,aswiththepluralmorphemesandthepastmorphemeed(ortheirvariants).Theycanonlybeaffixedtowordsofthesamewordclass;thatis,thepluralmorphemesareaffixedtonounsonly,andedtoverbsonly.English Lexicology(I)16Derivational AffixesuTheyaresocalledbecausewhentheyareaddedtoanothermorpheme,they“derive”anewword.Afewexamplesofderivationalaffixesare:re+write,mini+car,super+market,modern+ize,mean+ness,work+er.English Lexicology(I)17Derivational AffixesuManyderivationalaffixeshaveaspecificlexicalmeaning,forinstance:-ismmeans“doctrineorpointofview”asinsocialism.Quiteanumberofotherderivationalaffixeshavemorethanonemeaning.e.g.:theaffixde-means1.toundowhathasbeendone/reversetheactionof:decentralize,decode2.toremove:debone3.toreduce:devalue4.(esp.ingrammar)comingfromsomethingelse:adeverbalnoun.English Lexicology(I)18Derivational AffixesDerivationalaffixeshavenotonlyindependentlexicalmeaningbutalsoaffectivemeaning.Somepersonalnounsformedbythesuffixlinghaveaderogatoryshadeofmeaning,asinhireling,weakling;thesuffixish,withthesense“ofthenatureof,”ismarkedderogatoryintheTheConciseOxfordDictionary,asinmannish,womanishandbookish.English Lexicology(I)19Derivational Affixes Somederivationalaffixescanbeattachedtowordsofdifferentword-classes,de-isagoodexampletoillustratethispoint,asonecanseefromthedefinitionsandexamplesgivenabove:de-isattachedtoverbsinsense1and3,tonounsinsense2,andtoadjectivesinsense4.English Lexicology(I)20Bound Morphemes Somemorphemeshavenomeaninginisolationbutacquiremeaningonlyincombinationwithotherspecificmorphemes,suchas“huckle-,boysen-,luke-”.Theyoccuronlyinasinglewordofthelanguage,i.e.huckleberry,boysenberry,lukewarm.huckleberry:aspecialkindofberrythatthatissmall,roundandpurplishblueboyseninboysenberry:namedafterMr.Boysen,whodevelopeditasahybridfromblackberryandraspberrylukeinlukewarm:sortof,somewhatEnglish Lexicology(I)21 QuestionIs“-er”thesamemorphemeinthefollowingwords?loverworkernicerprettierfatherwateragentivemorpheme,“onewhodoes”comparativemorpheme,“more”monomorphemicwords,notaseparatemorphemeConclusion:Themorphemeisaunityofsoundandmeaning,andthemeaningmustbeconstant.English Lexicology(I)223.2 Inflectional and Derivational MorphemesInflectionalaffixes(曲折词缀)Affixesattachedtotheendofwordstoindicategrammaticalrelationshipsareinflectional,thusknownasinflectionalmorphemes.Forexample:cats,walked,walking,Johnsbook,slower,slowestDerivationalaffixes(派生词缀)Affixesaddedtoothermorphemestocreatenewwords.TheycanbefurtherdividedintoprefixesandsuffixesPrefixes(前缀)Suffixes(后缀)English Lexicology(I)23 Diagram of morphemesMorphemesFree BoundBound rootAffixes Inflectional Derivational Prefix Suffix English Lexicology(I)24English Lexicology(I)25adifferentcriteriaforclassificationofwords:onamorphemiclevelAccordingtothenumberandtypeofmorphemesTheycontain,WORDScanbeclassifiedinto:(1)simplewords:e.g.man,work,kind;(2)derivedwords:e.g.fruitless,fruitful,unfruitful,unfruitfulness;(3)compoundwords:e.g.deepstructure,spacesuit,forget-me-not,stick-in-the-mud,andjackofalltrades.English Lexicology(I)264.Root,stem and baseThethreearetermsusedinlinguisticstodesignatethatpartofawordthatremainswhenallaffixeshavebeenremoved.English Lexicology(I)27RootArootisthebasicunchangeablepartofaword,anditconveysthemainlexicalmeaningoftheword.Itisnotfurtheranalyzable,eitherintermsofderivationalorinflectionalmorphology.Itisthatpartofaword-formthatremainswhenalltheinflectionalandderivationalaffixeshavebeenremoved.Inthewordundesirables,therootisdesire,towhichfirstthesuffixable,thentheprefixun-andfinallytheinflectionalsuffixshavebeenadded.Inacompoundwordlikegreenhouse,therearetworoots,greenandhouse.English Lexicology(I)28 StemAstemisofconcernonlywhendealingwithinflectionalmorphology.Itisthepartofwordformwhichremainswhenallinflectionalaffixeshavebeenremoved.Thusinthewordundesirables,thestemisundesirable;butintheworddesired,thestemisdesire;inthewordgreenhousesthestemisgreenhouse,eventhoughthestemconsistsoftworoots.English Lexicology(I)29 BaseAbaseisanyformtowhichaffixesofanykindcanbeadded;itmayalsobedefinedas“aformtowhicharuleofword-formationisapplied.”Therefore,thismeansthatanyrootorstemcanbetermedabase.Butabasediffersfrombotharootorastem,becausetheyhavetheirownspecialfeaturesaswehavediscussedbefore.English Lexicology(I)30 read:readablereadsreading-able(derivationalaffix)read(root,base)-s(inflectionalaffix)read(root,stem,base)-ing(inflectionalaffix)read(root,stem,base)English Lexicology(I)31touch:touchable,touches,untouchable,untouched-able(derivationalaffix)touch(root,base)-es(inflectionalaffix)touch(root,stem,base)un-,-able(derivationalaffixes)touch(root,base)un-,-ed(derivational&inflectionalaffixes)touch(root,base)English Lexicology(I)325.Summary Wordsarecomposedofmorphemes.Amorpheme,theminimalmeaningfulunitoftheEnglishlanguage,possessesbothsoundandmeaning.Anallomorphisanyofthevariantformsofamorpheme.Morphemesmaybeclassifiedasfreeorbound.Afreemorphemeisonethatcanstandbyitselfasacompleteutterance,whileaboundmorphemecannotexistonitsown;itmustappearwithatleastoneothermorpheme,freeorbound.English Lexicology(I)335.SummaryMorphemescanalsobeclassifiedintorootsandaffixes.Arootcarriesthemaincomponentofmeaninginaword.Rootscanbefreeorboundmorphemes.Freerootscanstandaloneaswordsandprovidethelanguagewithabasisfortheformationofnewwords.BoundrootscannotappearaswordsinmodernEnglish,althoughtheywereoncewords,norcantheybeusedtoformnewwords.English Lexicology(I)345.SummaryAffixesareboundmorphemes,becausetheyareusedonlywhenaddedtoothermorphemes.Affixesareclassifiedintoinflectionalandderivationalaffixes.Theformerarerelatedtogrammaronly.Derivationalaffixesaresubdividedintoprefixesandsuffixes,whicharerelatedtotheformationofnewwords.Roots,prefixesandsuffixesarethebuildingblockswithwhichwordsareformed.English Lexicology(I)355.SummaryOnmorphemiclevel,wordscanbeclassifiedintosimple,complexandcompoundwords,accordingtothenumberandtypeofmorphemestheyarecomposedof.Morphemesareimportantintheword-buildingprocessbecausethetwomostcentralandproductiveword-formationprocess,compoundingandaffixation,arerelatedtomorphemes:theformerisacombinationoffreemorphemes,thelatteristheadditionofboundmorphemestofreeones.Morphemes词素/语素/形位ClassificationofMorphemes词素分类HowisanEnglishwordformed?E.g.disagreeabledisagreeable(byletter)disagreeable(bysyllable)dis+agree+able(bymorpheme)Whatisthedifferencebetween“morpheme”and“syllable”?Syllable:hasnothingtodowithmeaningMorpheme:two-facetbothsoundandmeaning2.1 Morphemes词素/语素/形位 1.TheDefinitionof“Morphemes”词素的概念2.Allomorphs词素变体back2.1.1TheDefinitionof“Morphemes”Questions:1.Whatis“Morpheme”?Whatistherelationbetween“morpheme”and“word”?*2.Whatare“Allomorphs”*Morpheme=morph+emeform+thesmallestunitMorpheme:thesmallestmeaningfullinguisticunitoflanguagesmallest:notdivisibleintosmallerformsmeaningful:carrymeaning(lexicalandgrammatical)e.g.denationalizationdenationalization=de+nation+al+iz+ationAmorphemeisatwo-facetlanguageunit:soundandmeaningbackAllomorphs:variousshapesorformsofamorphemedonotdifferinmeaningorfunctionconditionedbypositionoradjoiningsoundsbackE.g.bookbooks/-s/pigpigs/-z/horsehorses/-iz/E.g.perfect,responsible,logical,flexibleperfectimperfectresponsibleirresponsiblelogicalillogicalflexibleinflexibleE.g.inventinventiondescribedescriptionjustifyjustificationmodernizemodernizationexpandexpansiondecidedecisionomitomissionback2.2 Classification of Morphemes 词素分类 1.Free Morphemes and Bound Morphemes 自由词素与粘着词素 2.Roots and Affixes 词根与词缀 2.2.1 Free Morphemes and Bound Morphemes 自由词素与粘着词素Questions:1.What is“free morpheme”?2.What is“bound morpheme”?3.How does a free morpheme or a bound morpheme form a word?Whatis“freemorpheme”?Freemorpheme:onethatcanbeutteredalonewithmeaningAfreemorphemeisaword.E.g.green,red,write,faithWhat is“bound morpheme”?Bound morpheme:cannot stand by itself as a complete utteranceappear with at least one other morpheme,free or boundE.g.receive re-ceivebackHow does a free morpheme or a bound morpheme form a word?E.g.green,greenhouse,greenness,disagreeable,receive,encyclopedia green(free)green-house(free+free)green-ness(free+bound)dis-agree-able(bound+free+bound)re-ceive(bound+bound)en-cyclo-pedia(bound+bound+bound)Note:A free morpheme is a word.back2.2.2 Roots and Affixes 词根与词缀Questions:1.What is“root”?The classification of“root”?2.What is“affix”?The classification of“affix”?What are the differences between“inflectional affixes”and“derivational affixes”?3.In what two ways are derivational affixes classified?backWhat is“root”?Root:the basic unchangeable part of a word,conveying the main lexical meaning of the word.The classification of“root”?1.Free root(自由词根)2.Bound root（粘着词根）E.g.1)work,workable,worker,worked,working 2)contain,detain,retain 3)conceive,deceive,receive 4)revive,vitamin,vital,vivacious,vivid 1)work,workable,worker,worked,working(free)2)contain,detain,retain tain=tenere(L)=to hold (bound)3)conceive,deceive,receive ceive=capere(L)=to take(bound)4)revive,vitamin,vital,vivacious,vivid vit,viv=life/to live(bound)backVital:necessary in order to stay alive -al:pertaining to=have a connection with vital=having a connection with lifeVivacous:adj.apprec.full of life and high spirits;lively -ous:full of vivacous=full of life(energy)Vivid:producing sharp clear pictures in the mind;lifelike -id:having a certain quality vivid=having a certain quality of life What is“affix”?Affix:a collective term for the type of formative that can be used when added to another morphemeThe classification of“affix”1.Inflectional affixes(屈折词缀)2.Derivational affixes（派生词缀）Inflectional affixes(屈折词缀):to express such meanings as plurality,tense,and the comparative or superlative degree.Features：1.not to form a new word with new lexical meaning 2.having only particular grammatical meaning 3.only to be affixed to words of the same word-class(not to change the word-class)E.g.Pluralmarker:pens,oxen,feetGenitivecase:JamesVerbalendings:works,working,worked,bought,saidComparativeandsuperlativedegree:slower,slowestDerivationalaffixes（派生词缀）:tobeaddedtoanothermorphemetoderiveanewword特点：1.toderiveanewword2.havingaspecificlexicalmeaning(somealsoaffectivemeaning)3.sometobeattachedtowordsofdifferentwordclassese.g.Mini-carmean-nessModern-izeSocial-ismPro-communistDe-codeDe-valueWash-ableHavingpejorativeorderogatorymeaningmis-mal-absorptionpseudo-democratichire-lingweak-lingchild-ish派生词缀分类（derivationalmorphemes）:Prefixesandsuffixes1)Bylinguisticorigin:NativeaffixesForeignaffixes2)Byproductivity:Productive/livingaffixesUnpr