语言学How-to-do-things-with-words说课材料.doc
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1、语言学How to do things with words精品文档How to do things with words (1) How to Do Things with Words (1)b. Are you serving? c. Hello. d. Six pints of stout and a packet of peanuts, please! e. Give me the dry roasted ones. f. How much? Are you serious? Such sentences are not descriptions and cannot be said
2、to be true or false. Austins second observation was that even in sentences with the grammatical form of declaratives, not all are used to make statements. Austin identified a subset of declaratives that are not use to make true or false statements, such as in the examples below: a. I promise to take
3、 a taxi home. b. I bet you five pounds that he gets breathalysed. c. I declare this meeting open. d. I warn you that legal action will ensue. e. I name this ship The Flying Dutchman. Austin claimed of these sentences that they were in themselves a kind of action: thus by uttering: I promise to take
4、a taxi home. a speaker makes a promise rather than just describing one. This kind of utterance he called performative utterances: in these examples they perform the action named by the first verb in the sentence, and we can insert the adverb hereby to stress this function, e.g. I hereby request that
5、 you leave my property. We can contrast performative and non-performative verbs by these two features. A speaker would not for example expect the uttering of (a) below to constitute the action of cooking a cake, or (d) the action of starting a car. These sentences describe actions independent of the
6、 linguistic act. Accordingly the use of hereby with these sentences.a. I cook this cake. b. ?I hereby cook this cake.d. I start this car. b. ?I hereby start this car. Evaluating performative utterances Austin argued that it is not useful to ask whether performative utterances like those above are tr
7、ue or not, rather we should ask whether they work or not: do they constitute a successful warning, bet, ship-naming etc.? In Austins terminology a performative that works is called felicitous and one that does not is infelicitous. For them to work, such performatives have to satisfy the social conve
8、ntions for a very obvious example, I cannot rename a ship by walking up to it in dock and saying I name this ship the Flying Dutchman. Less explicitly, there are social conventions governing the giving of orders to co-workers, greeting strangers, etc. Austins name for the enabling conditions for a p
9、erformative is felicity conditions. Examining these social conventions that support performatives, it is clear that there is a gradient between performatives that are highly institutionalized, or even ceremonial, requiring sophisticated and very overt support, like the example of a judge pronouncing
10、 sentence, through to less formal acts like warning, thanking, etc. To describe the role of felicity conditions, Austin (1975: 25-38) wrote a very general schema: How to Do Things with Words (2) There must exist an accepted conventional procedure having a certain conventional effect, the procedure t
11、o include the uttering of certain words by certain persons in certain circumstances. The particular persons and circumstances must be appropriate for the invocation of the particular procedure invoked . The procedure must be executed by all the participants correctly. . and completely. Austin went o
12、n to add sincerity clauses: firstly that participants must have the requisite thoughts, feelings and intentions, as specified by the procedure, and secondly, that if subsequent conduct is called for, the participants must so conduct themselves. If the speech act is unsuccessful by failing the (1) or
13、 (2) conditions above, then he described it as a misfire. Thus my casually renaming any ship visiting Dublin docks is a misfire because (2) above is not adhered to. If the act is insincerely performed, then he described it as an abuse of a speech act, as for example saying I bet . with no intention
14、to pay, or I promise . when I already intend to break the promise. Linguists, as opposed to philosophers, have tended not to be so interested in this second type of infelicity, since the primary speech act has, in these cases, been successfully communicated. Explicit and implicit performatives Looki
15、ng at examples of performative utterances earlier, we can say that they are characterized by special features:a. They tend to begin with a first person verb in a form we could describe as simple present: I bet, I warn, etc. b. This verb belongs to a special class describing verbal activities for exa
16、mple: promise, warn, sentence, name, bet, pronounce. c. Generally their performative nature can be emphasized by inserting the adverb hereby, as described earlier, thus I hereby sentence you to. Utterances with these characteristics we can call explicit performatives. The importance of speech act th
17、eory lies in the way that Austin and others managed to extend their analysis from these explicit performatives to other utterances. The first step was to point out that in some cases the same speech act seems to be performed but with a relaxation of some of the special characteristics mentioned abov
18、e. We regularly meet utterances like those below, where this is so: a. You are (hereby) charged with treason. b. Passengers are requested to avoid jumping out of the aircraft. c. Five pounds says he doesnt make the semi-final. /LIHow to Do Things with Words (3) Come up and see me sometime. We can ea
19、sily provide the sentences above with corresponding explicit performatives, as below: 1. I (hereby) charge you with treason. 2. We request that passengers avoid jumping out of the aircraft. 3. I bet you five pounds that he doesnt make the semi-final. 4. I invite you to come up and see me sometime. I
20、t seems reasonable to say that the sentences (a-d) could be uttered to perform the same speech acts as those in (1-4). In fact it seems that none of the special characteristics of performative utterances is indispensable to their performance. How then do we recognize these other performatives, which
21、 we can call implicit performatives? Answers to this have varied somewhat in the development of the theory but Austins original contention was that it was an utterances ability to be expanded to an explicit performative that identified it as a performative utterance. Austin discussed at length the v
22、arious linguistic means by which more implicit performatives could be marked, including the mood of the verb, auxiliary verbs, intonation, etc. We shall not follow the detail of his discussion here; see Austin (1975: 53-93). Of course we soon end up with a situation where the majority of performativ
23、es are implicit, needing expansion to make explicit their force. One positive advantage of this translation strategy is that it focuses attention on the task of classifying the performative verbs of a language. For now, the basic claim is clear: explicit performatives are seen as merely a specialize
24、d subset of performatives whose nature as speech acts is more unambiguous than most. Statements as performatives Austins original position was that performatives, which are speech acts subject to felicity conditions, are to be contrasted with declarative sentences, which are potentially true or fals
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