浅析跨文化商务谈判的中西方思维方式差异-文学学士毕业论文.doc

Abstract
As Chinese economy shines on the stage, especially after entering the WTO, many of China import and export international business companies face more and more business negotiations. During a negotiation, both sides hope to obtain the maximum benefit, with minimum conflict and interest. Therefore, in order to effect the negotiation effectively and gain the win-win situation for both parties, we must have a thorough understanding of different cultures. Through analyzing the differences in cross-culture modes of thinking, we can distinguish the negotiation styles and skills of different cultures. By elaborating the importance of modes of thinking on the cross-cultural negotiation and analyzing the different modes of thinking between China and the West and their causes, this thesis tries to put forward some countermeasures to improve the efficiency in cross-cultural business negotiation, such as full preparation for the negotiation, cultivation of cross-cultural awareness and so on.
Key words: cross-cultural business negotiation; modes of thinking; strategies

中文摘要
随着中国的经济在世界大舞台上越来越活跃，尤其是在中国加入世贸组织之后，许多中国进出口国际企业面临了越来越多的商务谈判了。在谈判的过程中，双方都希望以最少的冲突和成本，获得最大的利益。因此，为了使谈判更有效地进行并让双方都达到了双赢的局面。我们必须对不同的文化有一个全面的了解，分析在商务谈判中跨文化思维方式的差异，区别各种文化的谈判方式和技巧。本文通过阐释思维方式对跨文化商务谈判的重要性，分析中西各种思维方式的差异及其产生的原因，提出相应的对策来提高跨文化对谈判的充分准备，培养跨文化的意识等。
关键词：跨文化商务谈判；思维方式；策略

1. Introduction
1.1 The definition of mode of thinking in cross-cultural business negotiation
Mode of thinking is the generalization of objective reality and the indirect reflection with the help of human being’s words and activities. Mode of thinking reflects the substantive characteristics and the connection with things. Generality and indirection are the features of mode of thinking. The generality of mode of thinking is the reflection to the intrinsic quality and the regular connection with the things. In other words, the process of connecting the things with the same features. The indirection of mode of thinking is the human brain reflection of the objective things by means of other things, namely, the human brain reflects the thing which could not be saw directly with the help of some medium and the brain processing.
With the help of mode of thinking, human beings could not only know the present, but also go back to the history and foresee the future. By means of mode of thinking, human beings can find the truth and test the truth in practice. By the complete dynamic mode of thinking process of analyzing, synthesizing, comparing, abstracting, generalizing and detailing, the development progress of human beings is deliberating, and the human civilization which makes up of different times, different areas, different societies and different ethnic groups is created.
Mode of thinking in business negotiation is the behaviors of the negotiators acquainted themselves with objective things rationally during the business negotiation, and it is the indirect and general reflection of the negotiators’ attitudes towards the negotiation standards, the negotiation environment and the counterparts behaviors.
1.2. The definition of cross-cultural business negotiation
Negotiation is a kind of basic human activity that we are involved in everyday. It is a process of giving and taking where both parties modify their offers and expectations in order to come closer to each other. It occurs due to one of the two reasons: (1) to create something new that neither party could do on his or her own, or (2) to resolve a problem or dispute between the parties. A modern definition of negotiation widely accepted is two or more parties with common and conflicting interests who enter into a process of interaction with the goal of reaching an agreement (preferably of mutual benefit).
Business negotiation refers to the negotiation that takes place in the business world and deals with business relationship. Business negotiation may be understood as encounters between firms (or economic organizations) with the goal of reaching agreements to gain economic benefits. A
Cross-cultural business negotiations, namely, cross-cultural communications”, which refers to that people from different cultural backgrounds communicate with each other”. Beside，cross-cultural communications are significant communicative symbols, especially the meaning of sharing and significance of symbols. It is a mutual influent process and at least has two groups come from different cultures. Thus, cross-cultural communications have five core assumptions, as follow:
a) Including cultural groups with differences of varied degrees
b) Including real-time encoding and decoding of the information between verbal and non-verbal communication process;
c) Containing the conflict in good faith;
d) Always happening in a specific context;
e) Always happening at the existing system.
Because of the complexity of Cross-cultural communication, Larry (2002) pointed out that human beings need to learn other people’s perspective to watch the world, make the choice carefully of using what kind of cultural perspective to observe and judge, and try to use different ways to achieve a harmonious interaction.
1.3. The importance of mode of thinking in cross-cultural business negotiation
Under the same circumstances, each individual in one culture may think in a slightly different way on the same question. Furthermore, the same individual may also think in a slightly different way in the same question under different circumstances. It concludes linear and linkage modes of thinking. They make impacts on negotiating styles and the result of the negotiation. Therefore, it is somewhat important to localize international business negotiations, learn to think on the side of others, and promote mutual understanding. Through the elimination of cultural barriers, the favorable cultural conditions can be created by the concerned efforts so that business negotiations can be effectively carried out.

2.Literature Review
Cross-cultural negotiations is the interactions, typically in business, that occur between various cultures. These negotiations are typically viewed as occurring between various nations, but cross-cultural studies can also occur between different cultures within the same nation, such as between European-Americans and Native Americans. As the world becomes more and more interdependent as a result in the expansion of globalization and international business relations, cross-cultural negotiations are becoming a common feature in business and political transactions. This being the case, understanding how cross-cultural negotiations occur is an important skill to have. Thus, there has been an abundance of research and literature conducted and written on the topic. What follows is a brief review of the current literature available on the topic of cross-cultural negotiations. Curry, Jeffrey, Edmund(1999): A Short Course in International Negotiating, World Trade Press , this book mainly focus on some factors in cross-cultural negotiation, otherwises, Mitchell, Charles(2000): A Short Course in International Business Culture, World Trade Press,which is concentrated on the topic of the culture. And my study on this dissertation aims at combining the two topic into one so as to get a better and profound understanding in cross-cultural business negotiation.

3. Various Kinds of Different Modes of Thinking between Chinese and the Westerners in Cross-cultural Business Negotiation
3.1. Difference between individualism and collectivism
Individualism refers to the doctrine that the rights of the individual are the most important ones in a society. Most westerners believe that each person has his own separate identity and personality, which should be recognized and reinforced. Therefore, one cannot comprehend the western and its people without understanding individualism. Only with the cognition of individualism can we understand how westerners conceptualize family, friendships, and privacy. The core of individualism is the pursuit of personal achievements. It is highly valued, earnestly believed and well appreciated as a fundamental social virtue. In Christianity traditions, individuals are important not only to each other, but also to the society and God. Individualism has been handed down from their ancestors. Therefore, to westerners, individualism is not selfishness but rather virtue. They emphasize individualism so much that they believe that there must be something wrong with someone who fails to demonstrate individualism. They like the sentence “God helps those who help themselves.” However to Chinese people, the word “individualism” is related to the derogatory meaning as egoism, which represents selfishness in quality and looseness in discipline. In traditional Chinese beliefs, esp. in Confucianism, collectivism is appreciated. It emphasizes cooperation among group members and individual success is due to the collective effort of the staff in a unit, an organization or a community. The sacrifice of individual interest for that of the collective is a noble quality eulogized so much by Chinese people that being modest and thoughtful of others are highly praised.
3.2. Difference between consensus and decisiveness in decision making
When locked in negotiations it is important to take into consideration the differences in the decision-making process between cultures. In some cultures where power is decentralized (United States, Australia) decisions can be made quickly---and often by a single individual. However, in cultures with collectivist values (Japan, China), decisions are made by consensus and can take longer. (However, implementation of decisions is quicker in collectivist’s cultures as opposed to individualistic cultures that often demand the right to question the decision handed down.) Consider the examples of the United States and Japan where values and cultural influences play a major role in the decision-making process. The contrast begins with the basic objectives a business decision is meant to achieve. In China that objective is preservation of group harmony. In the United States it is usually maximum profit or operating efficiency.
Now consider a decision as to whether or not to buy out a competitor, say, in the steel-making industry. In China, where decision-making is decentralized, the process would be a bottom-up one. In the United States it is centralized and top-down. The Chinese will start with trying to define the question or problem, beginning with input from the lower ranks---the people who may be directly affected by the decision. From these lower groups, the decision is passed upwards or laterally until it eventually reaches senior management who are already aware of the consensus built from below. Keeping in mind that the Chinese objective is preservation of group harmony, the question would be framed as a decision to the impact on the company’s current employees and those of the firm to be purchased. Once completed, the merger would go fairly smoothly because the consensus came from the bottom up and workers, not wishing to disturb group harmony, work hard to make it successful.
In the United States, senior management would begin the process, not by defining the problem, but rather by seeking a solution to the question of how to maximize profit from this acquisition. The route of the decision is purely top-down. Keeping in mind that the American objective is economic efficiency; the problem is framed as one of maximizing resources and return on capital. The decision would be objective and impersonal. If maximizing efficiency involves layoffs at both companies, so be it. The workers had no input on the decision and will question what is in it for them if they go along.
3.3. Different values between Chinese and westerners in cross-cultural business negotiation
The concept of Chinese values is often consciously or unconsciously placed in opposition with Western values. Therefore, it is necessary to determine how people define Western values. Some have stated that the modern Western value system originated in Victorian England, and describe it as social norms and behaviors common in European people during that time. The core of Western values is individualism. David Hitchcock described Western values from a Chinese perspective. He said that, from the Chinese viewpoint, Western values have three levels: 1) physical level – science, technology, business, public administration, and modern capitalist economics; 2) conceptual level – equal opportunity, the role of law; and time management; and 3) core values – open debate, equality, balance of power; free speech, and democracy. The core of the Chinese value has some relationship with the Confucianism. The ethnic principle of Confucianism is its discovery of the ultimate in the moral character of human relationships in which Confucius offered the solution for the ills and evils of his days. That is the well-known Five Relationships: ruler-minister, father-son, husband-wife, elder-younger brother and friend-friend. This was explained as” There should be affection between father and son , righteous sense of duty between ruler and minister, division of function between man and wife, stratification between old and young, and good faith between friends.” During the more than two thousand years of the feudal period, the ruling class arranges every thing by this relationship, and then formed a class society. In this kind of society, a minister owes loyalty to his ruler, and a child filial respect to his parent. The result is the humanity is neglected and people have no equality. Different from China, in the Renaissance period of England, people began to emphasize the dignity of human beings and the importance of the present life, they voiced their beliefs that man did not only have the right to enjoy the beauty of their life, but also have the ability to perfect themselves and perform wonders. This is the rudiment of Humanism. People became respect the humanity from then on. And then develop into the ideas of what we always said freedom, democracy. Today, take Americans for instance; the top personal values were self-reliance, hard work, and a tie between achieving success in life, personal achievement, and helping others. Hard work, respect for learning, honesty, and self-reliance were most valued among Chinese people. In terms of social values, the top six for Americans were freedom of expression, personal freedom, rights of the individual, open debate; thinking for oneself, and official accountability. The top six social values for Asian people were maintenance of an orderly society, harmony, accountability of public officials, openness to new ideas, freedom of expression, and respect for authority. This study finds that unlike Americans, East Asians are generally more respectful of authority