新编简明英语语言学教程第二版整理.doc

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Chapter 1: Introduction
1.Linguistics: 语言学It is generally defined as the scientific study of language.
( Linguistics studies not any particular language ,but it studies language in general)
2.General linguistics:普通语言学 The study of language as a whole is called general linguistics.
(language is a complicated entity with multiple layers and facets )
3.Language: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.
4.descriptive (描述性):A linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use.
5.prescriptive(规定性): It aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behaviors.
i.e. what they should say and what they should not to say.
6.synchronic(共时语言学): the description of language at some point of time in hiatory
7.diachronic (历时语言学):the description of language as it changes through time
3) speech（口语）Writing（书面语）
These the two media of communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. (speech is prior to writing)

8.langue(语言): refers to abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of the speech community.

It is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to abide by. Such as: In English sentence must have subject and predicate.
9.parole(言语):refers to the realization of langue in actual use.
It is concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules. (Saussure )
petence(语言能力): the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language
11.performance(语言应用):the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. (Chomsky)
traditional grammar and modern linguistics
1.linguistics is descriptive,while traditional grammar is prescriptive
2.modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary,not the writer.
3. also in that it does not force languages into a latin-based framework.
Functions of language.
1.the descriptive function.
2. the expressive function
3.the social function
Chapter 2: Phonology音系学
phonetics:the study of the phonic medium of language;
it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’ s languages9.
The three branches of phonetics
(1).Articulatory phonetics (发音语音学) (longest history)
(2.)Auditory phonetics （听觉语音学）
(3)Acoustic phonetics (声学语音学）
2. Speech organs: three important areas
⑴Pharyngeal cavity咽腔 ---- the throat;
⑵The oral cavity口腔---- the mouth;
⑶Nasal cavity –鼻腔--- the nose.

The principle source such modifications is the tongue.
The tongue is the most flexible.

International Phonetic Alphabet [IPA]: the basic principle of the IPA is using one letter selected from major European languages to represent one speech sound.
Broad transcription 宽式音标. The transcription of speech sounds with letter symbols only.
Narrow transcription窄式音标The transcription of speech sound with letters symbols and the diacritics.

Aspirated and unaspirated
1). phonology: 音系学It aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.
4. Phone, phoneme, allophone
A phone音素 is a phonetic unit or segment.
The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. Phones do not necessarily distinguish meaning, some do, some don’t, e.g. [ bI:t ] & [ bIt ], [spIt] & [spIt].
A phoneme音位 is a phonological unit;
it is a unit of distinctive value; an abstract unit, not a particular sound, but it is represented by a certain phone in certain phonetic context, e.g. the phoneme /p/ can be represented differently in [pIt], [tIp] and [spIt].
Allophones 音素变体---- the phones that can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments
sequential rule,
⑴Sequential rule(序列规则): rule governing the combination of sounds in a particular language.
⑵Assimilation rule（同化规则）: rule assimilating one sound to another by copying features of sequential phoneme,thus making the two phones similar.
⑶Deletion rule（省略规则）: rule governing the deletion of a sound in a certain phonetic context although it is represented in spelling.

6. Suprasegmental features（超切分特征）

⑴Stress
Word stress and sentence stress

⑵Tone声调
Tones are pitch variations,which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.
English is not a tone language, but Chinese is.

⑶Intonation语调
When pitch, stress and length variations are tied to the sentence rather than to the word, they are collectively known as intonation.
English has three types of intonation that are most frequently used:
falling tone (matter of fact statement)
rising tone (doubts or question)
the fall-rise tone (implied message)
the frise-fall tone (not frequently used)
For instance, “That’s not the book he wants.

Chapter 3: Morphology
1). Morphology形态学: refers to the the study of the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed
2). Morpheme词素: It is the smallest meaningful unit of language.
3). Free morpheme自由词素:a morpheme can be a word by itself.
4). Bound morpheme.黏着词素: a morpheme that must be attached to another one.
5). Allmorphs词素变体:the variant forms of a morpheme

Chapter 4: Syntax
Syntax句法学: Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences.
Word-level categories
1,Major lexical categories
2. minor lexical categories
To determine a word’s categorie,three critera are usually employed
1.meaning 2.inflection 3.distribution.

Phrase:syntactic units that are built around a centain word category
complementizers words which introduce the sentence complement
complement clause the sentence introduced by the cmomplementizers
D-structure:formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’s subcategorization properties
S-structure:corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results form appropriate transformation .

Chapter 5: Semantics
Semantics: 语义学can be simply defined as the study of meaning.
1） The naming theory(命名论)
Oldest notions concering meaning.most primitive one.
It was proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato.
words are just names or labels for things.
2）The conceptualist view（意念论）
It holds that there is no direct link between a lin-guistic form and what it refers to. In the interpretation of meaning, they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.
3)Contextualism（语境论）
①Meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context—elements closely linked with language behavior. Two types of contexts are recognized:
②Situational context: spatiotemporal situation
③Linguistic context: the probability of a word’s co-occurrence or collocation.
④For example, “black” in black hair & black coffee, or black sheep differs in meaning; “The president of the United States” can mean either the president or presidency in different situation.
4) Behaviorism（行为主义论）
Bloomfield
①Behaviorists attempted to define meaning as “the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer”.
②The story of Jack and Jill:
Jill Jack
S_________r--------s_________R

3. Sense and reference
①Sense---- is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized.
②Reference----what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.
4. Major sense relations
Synonymy（同义关系）
Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning.
Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms. 同义词
complete synonyms, i.e. synonymy that are mutually substitutable under all circumstances, are rare

Homonymy（同音/同形异义）
Homonymy: Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form,
（1)Homophones（同音异义）: When two words are identical in sound, they are called homophones.
e.g. rain/reign.
（2)Homographs(同形异义): When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs.
e.g. tear v. / tear n.
（3)Complete homonyms(同音同形异义): When two words are identical in both sound and spelling, they are called complete homonyms.
e.g. fast v. / fast adj.; scale v. /scale. n.

Hyponymy（下义关系）
Hyponymy: Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.
eg.superordinate: flower
hyponyms: rose, tulip, carnation, lily
Antonymy（反义关系）
the term antonymy is used for oppositeness of meaning
1) Gradable antonyms（等级反义词）----there are often intermediate forms between the two members of a pair, e.g. old-young, hot-cold, tall-short …
2) Complementary antonyms（互补反义词）----the denial of one member of the pair implies the assertion of the other, e.g. alive-dead, male-female …
3) Relational opposites（关系反义词）----exhibits the reversal of the relationship between the two items, e.g. husband-wife, father-son, doctor-patient, buy-sell, let-rent, employer-employee, give-receive, above-below …

2) There are two aspects to sentence meaning:
1.grammatical meaning
2. semantic meaning, e.g.

selectional restrictions.
Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by rules
eg. constraints on what lexical items can go with what others

Predication analysis---- a way to analyze sentence meaning (British G. Leech).

Chapter 6: Pragmatics
1). Pragmatics: 语用学the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.
Pragmatics and semantics are both linguistic studies of meaning.
What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether the context of use is considered in the study of meaning
If it is not considered, the study is confined to the area of traditional semantics; if it is considered, the study is being carried out in the area of pragmatics.

⑴Austin’s new model of speech acts
Utterance meaning: the meaning of an utterance is concrete, and context-dependent. Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context.

Cooperative Principle(CD):Paul Grice.His idea is that to converse with each other, the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate; otherwise, it would not be possible for them to carry on the talk.

3）Principle of conversation (Paul Grice)
The maxim of quantity （数量准则）
Make your contribution as informative as required (for the current purpose of the exchange). （使自己所说的话达到当前交谈目的所要求的详尽程度。）
Do not make your contribution more informative than is required. （不能使自己所说的话比所要求的更详尽。）
he maxim of quality （质量准则）
Do not say what you believe to be false.（不要说自己认为不真实的话。）
Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.（不要说自己缺乏足够证据的话。）
The maxim of relation（关联准则）
Be relevant.（说话要贴切。）
The maxim of manner （方式准则）
Avoid obscurity of expression. （避免晦涩的词语。）
Avoid ambiguity. （避免歧义。）
Be brief (avoid unnecessary prolixity) （说话要简短，避免累赘。）
Be orderly. （说话要有条理。）
Chapter 8
Sociolinguistics 社会语言学The sub-field of linguistics that studies the relation between language and society, between the use of language and the social structures in which the users of language live.
speech variety 言语变体refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or a group of speakers.
Linguistic repertoire语言库the totality of linguistic varieties possessed by an individual constitutes his linguistic repertoire.
Halliday’s register theory.
according to Halliday (British), “language varies as its function varies; it differs in different situations.”
Register 语域the type of language which is selected as apprppriate to the type of situation is a Register
field of discourse, 话语范围It can be either technical or non-technical.
tenor of discourse, 话语意旨It refers to the role of relationship in the situation in question
mode of discourse话语方式It refers to the means of communication
Five stages of formality
Intimate Casual Consultative Formal Frozen
Bilingualism双语现象
In some speech communities, two languages are used side by side with each having a different role to play; and language switching occurs when the situation changes. This constitutes the situation of Bilingualism.
diglossia According to Ferguson (1959), refers to a sociolinguistic situation similar to bilingualism.

chapter 9
culture 文化in a broad sense, reflects a total way of life of a people in a community. in a narrow sense, culture may refer to local or specific practice, beliefs or customs.

the relation of language to culture is that of part to whole.
discourse communities 话语社会the common ways in which members of the social group use similar language to meet their needs.
linguistic relativity 语言相对性to put it simply, different language offer people different ways of expressing the world around, and so they think and speak differently

an linguistic sign may simultaneously have a
denotativ meanings.e,
connotative meanings.,
iconic meanings.
three forms of culture contact are identified:
acculturation,
assimilation,
amalgamation
through communication, some elements of culture A enter culture B and become part of culture B,thus bringing about cultural diffusion

chapter 10
language acquisition语言习得 refers to a child's acquisition of his mother tongue.

three different theories concerning ho language is learned:
the behaviorist,
the innatist,
the interationist.
Chomsky proposed that human being are born with an innate ability known known as language acquisition device or orLAD.later Chomsky referred this innate endowment as Universal Grammar.

the interactionisist view holds that language develops as a result of the complex interplay between the human characteristics of the child and the environment in which he grows.

critical period Hypothesis 关键期假说Eric Lenneberg argued that the LAD, like other biological function, works successfully only when it is stimulated at the right time —a specific and limited time period for language acquisition.

chapter 11
second language acquisition 第二语言习得refers to the systematic study of how one person acquires a second language subsequent to his native language
interlanguage 中介语was established as learners 's independent system of the second language, which is of neither the native language nor the second language, but a continuum or approximation from one extreme of his native language to the other of the second language.

among the three important characteristcs: systematicity, permeability, fossilization

input hypothesis输入假说: Krashen
Krashen put forward that learners advance their language learning gradually by receiving "comprehensible input "

chapter 12
neurlinguistics 神经语言学is the study of two related areas: language disorder and the relationship between the brain and language.

it includes research i