研究生学术英语写作教程Unit6key.doc

Unit 6

Keys for 1.3.1

●We found elevated risks for colorectal and lung cancer with both meat types.

●We observed borderline statistically significant elevated risks for advanced prostate cancer with both red and processed meat intake, …

●We found a positive association between red meat intake specifically and cancers of the esophagus and liver, and a borderline significant positive association for laryngeal cancer.

●Unexpectedly, we found an inverse association between red meat intake and endometrial cancer; …

●We observed a suggestion of an elevated risk for advanced prostate cancer with both meat types.

●With regard to breast cancer, a pooled analysis of eight cohort studies found no association with red meat intake;

Keys for 1.3.2

Elements
Functions
1

Provide a brief synopsis of key findings, with particular emphasis on how the findings add to the body of pertinent knowledge.
2

Summarize the result in relation to each research objective or hypothesis
3

Relate findings back to the literature or the results reported by other researchers
4

Discuss possible mechanisms and explanations for the findings. Compare study results with relevant findings from other published work. Briefly state literature search sources and methods. Use tables and figures to help summarize previous work when possible.
5

Discuss the limitations of the present study and any methods used to minimize or compensate for those limitations, or mention any crucial future research directions.
6

Conclude with a brief section that summarizes in a straightforward and circumspect manner the clinical implications of the work.

2.1.1

Cause: iron
Effect: carcinogenesis

2.1.3
1. Firstly; 2.Furthermore; 3. because of; 4. can lead to; 5. causing; 6. cause; 7. due to
2.1.4 Notes into a Causal Paragraph
There are several factors to be taken into account when studying why some plants become weak or die. One reason is lack of water. Dryness in the soil causes the leaves to wilt, and may give rise to the death of the plant. On the other hand, too much water may result in the leaves drooping, or becoming yellow. While sunshine is necessary for plants, if it is too strong, the soil may be baked and the roots killed. However, if there is no light, the leaves will become pale and the stems thin. Consequently the plant may die.

Keys for 2.2.1
Examples of strengthening a claim:
We observed borderline statistically significant elevated risks for …

It lends strong support to …

We observed a stronger positive association for …
We found a positive association between red meat intake specifically and cancers of the esophagus and liver,…

In contrast to our findings, childhood leukemia has been positively associated with intake of processed meats in a case-control study.

Examples of weakening a claim:
Our study suggests a threshold effect for red meat intake on esophageal cancer risk,…

It is possible that the referent group had a smaller-than-expected cancer incidence by chance.

We observed a suggestion of an elevated risk for advanced prostate cancer with both meat types.

This could explain some of the inconsistencies in the literature as most previous studies have not specifically addressed advanced prostate cancer.

Although breast cancer risk related to meat intake did not appear to differ by menopausal status in our study, we had very few premenopausal cases (n = 94) and lacked information on hormone receptor status for a large number of cases.

Associations between saturated fat and cancer are likely to be related to energy balance in general, whereas iron is thought to contribute to carcinogenesis specifically by generating free radicals and inducing oxidative stress.

An earlier start in data collection would have increased the time needed to survey more participants. Ideally, the number of participant would have been more evenly distributed across gender/year in population. A larger sample with diversity would have benefited our results.

A decrease in the consumption of red and processed meat could reduce the incidence of cancer at multiple sites.

Keys for 2.3

In our study, zinc supplementation did not result in a significant reduction in overall mortality in children aged 1–48 months in a population with high malaria transmission. However, there was a suggestion that the effect varied by age, with no effect on mortality in infants, and a marginally significant 18% reduction of mortality in children 12–48 months of age (p=0·045). This effect was mainly a consequence of fewer deaths from malaria and other infections. Any effect on mortality in this trial was in addition to a possible effect of vitamin A supplementation

Keys for 3.2
Even though Arizona and Rhode Island are both states of the U.S., they are strikingly different in many ways. For example, the physical size of each state is different. Arizona is large, having an area of 114,000 square miles, whereas Rhode Island is only about a tenth of the size, having an area of only 1,214 square miles. Another difference is in the size of the population of each state. Arizona has about four million people living in it, but Rhode Island has less than one million. The two states also differ in the kinds of natural environment that each has. For example, Arizona is a very dry state, consisting of large desert areas that do not receive much rainfall every year. However, Rhode Island is located in a temperate zone and receives an average of 44 inches of rain per year. In addition, while Arizona is a landlocked state and thus has no seashore, Rhode Island lies on the Atlantic Ocean and does have a significant coastline.

Keys for 3.3
The following is taken from a discussion section of a research paper.
Discussion
A thorough analysis of both ‘worst’ and ‘best’ rankings shows that the onsite containment technique leads to the best LCA result in the light of the taken hypotheses. Unlike other treatment techniques, onsite containment requires not only few materials (geosynthetics only) but also small-scale excavation works. Actually the more a technique includes heavy technical operations involving materials and equipment, the worse the result of LCA is. This is the case for bio-leaching and offsite landfilling, which include, on the one hand, setting up the bio-leaching device, the treatment of leachates with lime, disposal of waste and cleaning of the site, and on the other hand, removal of soil and the transportation of huge quantities of materials over large distances.
As mentioned above, besides the LCA, it is necessary to take into account the ability of techniques to substitute for each other as well as the environmental burdens which may be associated with them.
Viewed in this light, it is worth noticing that bio-leaching and offsite landfilling provide complete remediation of the site, contrary to other treatment techniques. Bio-leaching consists of a real onsite decontamination of the polluted soil, which enables bequeathing of a clean site to coming generations. Nevertheless, in addition to a bad LCA result, this emergent technique is still poorly known and its efficiency is not quite proven for large-scale applications as yet. As regards offsite landfilling, if the site is left usable without any risk, the huge quantities of non-stabilized waste, which have to be disposed of in landfill, may disturb the organization of local waste management. This point emphasizes the bad result of LCA.
In return, if the favorable LCA result of onsite containment is due to light treatment operations, this very thing brings environmental issues up into the long term. Indeed, only setting-up of a water-resistance device entails onsite storage of huge quantities of non-stabilized soil, meaning that the initial problem is actually postponed, but not solved.
As regards liming, which gives intermediate LCA results, an embankment of stabilized soil plays an important part in site rehabilitation. Indeed, in the absence of embankment, liming offers no chance of reuse for the whole site, whereas the site becomes partly reusable when an embankment of limed soil is achieved. However, stabilization provided by the liming technique is not reliable in the long term and it cannot be assured that the site will be safe for coming generations.
To conclude, with the view to treating the site contaminated by sulfur in the short-term, the LCA has been a useful tool in determining the most environmentally friendly technique: onsite containment has been revealed to offer the best resource productivity.
On the basis of these interesting results, it would be useful to take into account a wider range of environmental flows in order to get a more exhaustive inventory. And furthermore, a more conventional LCA format could be achieved by using impact categories (global warming, acidification…) as inputs in the multicriteria analysis, instead of environmental flows.

Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)